Migration Project Essay

The Tony’s Chips web site is to be moved from and external hosting solution to an internal solution. In addition, the site will be redesigned to enable customers to place orders. These are two separate work tasks that should be treated separately and performed by different team members. There are many options for hosting the web site internally, including software choices to hardware architecture. This document will review the tasks that need to be performed, document the process of performing those tasks, and justify the software and hardware choices. There are a few different alternatives to how this web site can be hosted. The company could host the web site with an external service that maintains their own servers and services. This method is commonly used by start-up businesses and web sites that do not require a huge amount of customization, monitoring, bandwidth, and storage. When a company wishes to have more control over their site and how it is hosted, they can chose to use a server service. With this kind of service, a company that owns a large server farm leases out one or more servers to the company. This allows the company to have dedicated servers, which they have control over without the need to physically store the server or perform the regular maintenance. Web sites that involve database-driven web applications can eventually require many different servers. This can be a problem for some companies that do not have the logistical capabilities to store these servers on-site. Consider that these servers will take up space, require appropriate cooling, and warrant a sophisticated fire-suppression system. A server farm service will have all of this in place all ready at no additional cost to the client. The first step in migrating the web site from an externally hosted service to an internal system is to get the infrastructure in place. This includes the physical computers that will be used, the software servers that will be installed on these computers, the network configuration, the wide area network connectivity, and the necessary firewall. Once all of this is in place, the content of the external web site should be replicated to the internal system, as it currently is. Then, after testing the internal web site via the IP address that points to the internally-hosted version, the systems administrators can update the DNS record for the web-site’s domain name to point to the internally hosted version. This can take a couple days to fully produce across the major DNS backbone on the internet. During that time, some traffic will go to the internal site and some will go to the external site. There will be no downtime as far as the users of the site are considered. However, some data that is stored as a result of user-interaction may not be record at the new site. This will require that the old site to be left running for a business week. After every day, the old site should be checked for any new data transactions. Any found should be migrated to the new site. While this method will place more work on the staff of the company, it results in zero downtime for users of the site. While this method place more work on the staff of the company, it results in zero downtime for users of the site. The work to be performed in this part of the project can be broken down into: Planning and Analysis, Physical Setup, Software Installation, Code Replication, Data Migration. In the Gantt Chart in the attachment following this paper, a lot of the tasks that are taken during the process of migrating the existing site from an externally hosted service to an internally hosted system can occur concurrently. For instance, installation of the web server and the database server can occur at the same time. This is assuming that the web server and the database server are on two different machines. The system software that will be used is rath er standard for a web site. The paradigm hat is chosen revolves around a Linux, Apache, MySQL, PHP (LAMP) model. The security features available within many distributions of Linux are far better than would be available on Windows. In addition, everything in a LAMP model is freely available. An alternative model would use Windows and IIS. However, Windows and IIS are only available commercially. In contrast, Linux and Apache are free systems that are widely supported and are, by far, the most widely used platform for hosting web sites. In addition, the use of PHP and MySQL is also free. The web site could also be set up with something like Adobe ColdFusion and Microsoft SQL Server. However, both of these items are commercially available for a substantial price. While Microsoft SQL Server is quite popular, it does not come close to the wide spread use of MySQL. Likewise, PHP is an order of magnitude more common than Adobe ColdFusion. There is no reason to spend large quantities of money on application and database servers when the most commonly used, and fully supported systems are freely available. Since Tony’s chips is not currently an extremely large web site that processes millions of transactions a day, the architecture will be rather standard and simple. However, the need for redundancy has been made clear and needs to be taken into consideration. In the interest of making the web site fault tolerant, two web servers, two database servers, and a replication server will be set up for the site. The system administrators must also ensure that wide area network connectivity with a static IP address is set up. This way, the static IP address can be assigned to the domain name in the site’s DNS entry. It is also important that security be taken into consideration. The use of a firewall and a demilitarized zone will be required. The demilitarized zone is in place to ensure that the public can access the web servers. However, the database servers and the replication server will exist behind a firewall that prevents the public from accessing these computers. The only external entities that will be able to access these servers are the web servers themselves. The replication server is exactly what it sounds like. It is in control of the replication of data across the two databases. We want to make certain that if a single database fails, that the other database is still up and running. This requires that we keep two copies of the database running at all times. However, this will not require that the program logic deals with two sets of data. All modern database management systems have the ability to set up a replication service that copies all the data entered into one database into another database. This ensures that if one of the databases fails, we can switch over to the database that is still running. After the failure is resolved, the data between the two servers will need reconciled. However, the users of the web site will not notice an interruption. The same basic concept is used for the web servers. Depending on traffic load or server condition, a web server could crash. To ensure that the system is tolerant of such a fault, two web servers are set up. If one of the computers or web servers crashes, the other one can pick up the traffic. In addition to providing the key benefit of fault tolerance, the additional web server can be set up to use load balancing. Since there will usually be two web servers running at any given time, it is possible to set it ups so that the traffic to the web site is split between the two servers. In a case where the web site is getting a very large amount of traffic in a short amount of time, this can help prevent the web server from getting over-taxed. An illustration of the system architecture is also provided in the attachment following this paper. The requirement to update the web site to facilitate customer orders has been identified. This is a software engineering requirement that is fundamentally separate than the requirement to move from an external host to an internal host. The only major impact that this would have on the migration is in the case that the web site never used a database before this change. This has not been identified. However, even if that were the case, the previously described architecture assumes that a database will be used. Therefore, the architecture that is required for the addition of an ordering system is fully in place. Now that such a system is in place, software engineers and programmers can begin the work of designing and implementing the new ordering system. It would not make sense to roll these processes in with the migration of the web site. Migration of a web site has enough potential pit falls and potential points of failure without adding in the variable of entirely new code. If this were to be done at the same time, a fault in the new ordering code could be mistaken for a fault that occurred with the migration, or vice versa. One of the downsides of hosting a web site internally is that all support will be divested to the company rather than a third-party service. This includes all regular maintenance of the system as well as regular web site support. For maintenance, regular backups of each database should made. This could include nightly backups and weekly backups that are stored off-site. This also involves maintaining network cabling and monitoring the temperature of the server storage area and cleaning dust out of the servers fan vents. This will also require monitoring network activity for malicious attacks such as a port scan or a distributed denial of service. More advanced server solutions that are available as external hosting would include all of this in their service fee. Technologies to detect and prevent things like distributed denial of service takes planning and a non-trivial software investment. Of course, the addition of the ordering system adds new requirements to the web site support. Customers will need a place to email and/or call to inquire about orders or complain about the service they received. There will need to be individual who are responsible for addressing these customer interactions. Evaluation of a web site like the one planned in this document is an ongoing process. At first, the success of the migration is evaluated by the existence and duration of any down time. Then, web site responsiveness and uptime is evaluated. With the measure put into place, the downtime should be zero and the uptime should be close to 100%. Even with redundancy and fault tolerance, it is impossible to guarantee 100% uptime. To evaluate the new order system, the success of orders needs to be taken into consideration. Can customers place the orders that they wish to make? When a product is out of stock, does it state so on the product pages and prevent the customer from placing the order? When the customer places the order, does the financial transaction process successfully? Is the database notified about denied charges? Beyond the mechanics of the order procedures, the number of orders being placed should be evaluated. The success of the web site can partially be evaluated by assessing the conversion rate on the web site. The conversion rate is the number of visitors who proceed to making an order. The goal is to convert as many customers as possible. If the system’s cart and the checkout system is not intuitive, the result could be a very low conversion rate. Conclusion The Tony’s Chips web site will be migrated to an internally hosted system consisting of fault tolerance and redundancy. After this logistical process has been completed and all necessary DNS entries have successfully updated, the system will be modified to include an ordering system so that customer can order chips and any other product that is offered. These two objects are separated to ensure that they do not interfere with one another and to limit the number of variables at any given time. With the proposed architecture and design, it is believed that the new system will be highly efficient and effective. In the attachments following this paper, as some were discussed earlier there will be a gnatt chart, system architecture illustration, and a use case.

History of Theater: 1890 – 1920

â€Å"Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player, that struts and frets his hour upon the stage and then is heard no more; it is a tale told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, signifying nothing. † – William Shakespeare The theatre has been a part of entertainment since ancient Greece, around 4th century BC or thereabouts. The theatre grew out of festivals in honor of the god Dionysus. Aeschylus created the first play in her honor. The first Greek plays were all tragedies but eventually comedy made its way and these plays were performed at festivals all over Greece.Through the centuries theater played the main role of entertainment from noble and royalty to the common person in any city or village, and as we move into the twenties century, theater was still a huge part of the entertainment for the masses. At the start of the 20th Century, America was in full glory of its cultural adolescence, bursting with energy. London was still the theatrical center of the world, b ut New York was gaining its own form of sophistication and acknowledgement. By 1900 most of the signs on Broadway had gone electric, and New York City’s famous theater district soon became know as â€Å"The Great White Way. It was known as the Mecca of the American theatrical world: the rest of the country was referred to by people in show business as â€Å"the road. † In 1904, the city opened its first underground subway system, and thanks to this system, tens of thousands living far from the theatre district could catch a Broadway show and still be home the same evening. With this increase of commuters and the ever growing number of tourist to New York, Broadway theatres’ audiences more than tripled in less that one year. Thus the productions had longer running times than ever before.At this time the majority of Broadway shows came from London, with English actors, producers, and directors. Then in 1903, Frank L. Baum’s children’s novel The Wiza rd of Oz was the first-ever all American musical to be performed on Broadway. The story of Dorothy and her pet cow Imogene (the cow was easier to see from the balcony than a small dog named Toto) took audiences to a magical land call Oz. The production included lavish costumes and fantastic fantasy sets and a state-of-the-art cyclone. This production had several hit songs but due to the fantastic MGM’s 1939 film, these songs faded from the general public’s memory.After a very long run on Broadway, The Wizard of Oz enjoyed a long running national tour, and thanks to the improvements of the railway system, the show was able to take a full scale Broadway production set and costumes on the road. By 1904 it is believed that over 400 different shows where touring the United States with full Broadway production values. The only snag in some of these performances is having theaters in different cities that are able to hold such a production. With this need, the boom of grand t heaters around the country began. Many of these theatres are still in operation today.As the theatre business was booming, the need for new shows was increasing the opportunity for new playwrights were wide open. People like George M. Cohan, Victor Herbert, and Florenz Ziegfeld stepped up to the call. George M. Cohan was a writer, director, choreographer, and producer and stared in several of his own shows. He was famous for his jingoistic musical comedies that celebrated the triumph of the American know-how and New York style street smarts. Though most of his productions had short runs on Broadway, the musicals that toured the United States were met by packed houses several years.His most memorable hit was Little Johnny Jones, where Cohan played an American jockey who loses the English Derby, clears himself of false charges that he threw the race, and wins the girl he loves. The songs â€Å"Yankee Doodle Dandy† and â€Å"Give My Regards to Broadway† from this show mad e Cohan a nationwide household name. Cohn’s pro-American shows had little appeal outside the United States and are perhaps too simplistic to be revived in their original version, but his songs are still familiar today, including the wartime hit â€Å"Over There. Cohn is most famous for his curtain call speeches where he always ended with the statement â€Å"My mother thanks you, my father thanks you, my sister thanks you, and I assure you, I thank you. † One of Broadway’s most respected composers at the start of the 20th Century was Victory Herbert, a classically trained musician who turned out musicals that were considered much more sophisticated than Cohan’s but equally as popular. Though trained in Europe, his scores had a distinctly American sound.He was the first American songwriter to successfully insist that no changes be made to his scores without his permission. His musicals involved simple American goodness triumphing over Old World ways. He is known for his musical Babes in Toyland that is best remembered for its title song â€Å"March of the Toys. † Trying to copy the success of The Wizard of Oz, Hebert’s fantasy had a far better score and continued to be revived until the mid 1940s. Naughty Marietta was a production about a French noblewoman who leaves her husband for an American Solder and moves to New Orleans.The score included the hit song â€Å"Ah, Sweet Mystery of Life† and was designed for operatic voices. It is one of the few Herbert musicals still performed today. When it comes to show stoppers on Broadway, Florenz Ziegfeld was known as the Ultimate Broadway Showman. Boasting his own theatre, Ziegfeld showcased glamorous Parisian reviews that used skits and song to spook the social and political â€Å"follies† of the day. Thus the Ziegfeld Follies were born. The productions included over the top sets, extravagant costumes and â€Å"The Ziegfeld Girls,† a chorus of attractive f emales.Out of consideration for the sensibilities of theatergoers, the tone of his productions was sexy but never trashy. Ziegfeld considered thirteen his lucky number and thus gave his revue the thirteen letter name Follies of the Day taken from the title of a popular newspaper column penned by librettist Harry B. Smith, who Ziegfeld hired to write the libretto. By 1900, there were currently thirty-three legitimate Broadway theatres, and many more would be built over the next couple of decades to meet the demand of the growing audiences.The productions included those of drama, comedy and musicals, but legitimate theatre was not the only theatrical entertainment of this time. During this time a large group of entertainers travels from one small theater to the next, entertaining thousands with their simple song and dance, mini-comical skits, and different acts of entertainment. These people were known as Vaudevillians and their theatre circuit was known as Vaudeville. Vaudeville was a theatrical paradigm in the United States and Canada from the early 1880s until the early 1930s.Each performance consisted of separate, unrelated acts grouped together on a common bill. Types of acts included popular and classical musicians, dancers, comedians, trained animals, magicians, female and male impersonators, acrobats, illustrated songs, jugglers, one-act plays or scenes from plays, athletes, lecturing celebrities, minstrels, and movies. Vaudeville developed from many sources, including the concert saloon, minstrelsy, freak shows, dime museums, and literary burlesque. Called â€Å"the heart of American show business,† vaudeville was one of the most popular types of ntertainment in North America for several decades until the start of the movie age. Vaudeville original started in the mid 1850s but thanks to the increase of number of theaters and improvement of transportation via railway, the popularity grew in the late 19th century into the early 20th century. Vaudev ille opened the door of entertainment to thousands who had some form of special act. It was also one of the few avenues that opened for African-American mobility in a white world. African-American musicians achieved financial success while carving their niche for future artist.One of the most famous African-American acts was that of Bert Williams and George Walker, a ragtime song and dance team that toured the Vaudeville theaters with Williams playing a well-dressed conniver and Walker as a limbering stooge. Harry Houdini, the famous escape artist was a very popular entertainer in the early 1900s. After a tour in Europe he came back to America with thunderous applause and recognition. Houdini was able to perform his difficult feats by remaining in excellent physical and mental condition. He pushed himself relentlessly.To develop his capacity for holding his breath, Houdini installed an oversize bathtub in his house so that he could practice regularly. Through extensive training, he was able use his left hand nearly as well as his right. While casually chatting with friends, he would perform card and coin tricks without looking at his hands, or tie and untie knots in pieces of rope with his feet. Determined to stay on top of the entertainment field, Houdini refined techniques he had already mastered and continually developed new and more daring escapes.Though known to be friendly and warm, Houdini had a large ego, could be touchy and petty at times, and frequently displayed a volatile tempter to his assistants. One of the most fascinating acts that I found in my research was that of Evelyn Nesbit. In 1893 Nesbit started her career as an artist model in Pittsburg, PA. In 1901 Nesbit, age 16, with her mother moved to New Your City were Nesbit modeling career grew to such a point that she was one of the highest paid artist and photography models in New York.At the time she was being paid $5 for half a day and $10 for a full day of work. During this time Nesbit was also performing as a chorus girl on Broadway. Nesbit’s real story stated when her husband, Harry Thaw shot her lover, Stanley White on the night of June 26, 1906. Thaw knew that Nesbit has been seeing White for years even before their marriage. On the night of the 25th, at the production of â€Å"Mam’zelle Champagne† at the dining theater on the roof of Madison Square Gardens, Thaw saw White sitting several seats away from him and Nesbit.He calmly got out of his seat, walked over to White, pulled out a revolver and shot White three times in the face. The incident became known and â€Å"The Crime of The Century. † Thaw was tried and committee to life on an insanity plea. Thaw’s mother offered Nesbit a huge some of money if she would divorce her son before the conclusion of the trial. Nesbit did but never received any of the money; but Nesbit’s popularity soared, and from this she created an acts known as â€Å"The Girl on the Velvet Swingâ €  where all she did was sit on a sing in the middle of the stage and tell her tragic story.Nesbit’s act lasted for a few years, but as most stories, once you’ve heard it once or twice, interests started going astray. She eventually tried her hand at movies with little success. In 1926 she gave an interview to the New York Times about her dramatic life story which she eventually published as a memoir. The list of famous Vaudeville acts is endless, and many of these actors and entertainers took their talents west to Hollywood to become movie starts. One of these most successful stories of this is that act of Abbott and Costello.Starting in the early 1920s, the act of Lou Abbott and Bud Costello was known for the quick one liners and fast repartee. Most famous for their â€Å"Who’s on First† routine, Abbott and Costello’s acts moved from stage to radio to movies, becoming one of the most famous dues in American entertainment. As we look back at th eatre in the early 1900s we see the birth of a new age, one of theatre productions written, produced and directed by Americans, with American themes. Theatre changed as the times changed.It gave to the people what the people wanted and what they needed. From the large Broadway productions to the simple song and dance routines of Vaudeville, theatre was one of the main source of entertainment; allowing people to escape from their everyday world into a world of song, laughter and enjoyment. From the hearts of the actors and entertainers to the hearts of the theatergoer, life on a stage is one of true imagination and continues to allow us to go to that place where our true selves can wander, wonder and enjoy.

Psychological Disorder Analysis Essay

The world of abnormal psychology is filled with many different types of disorders, symptoms, and treatment options. Today, I will be working with Roger, a middle-aged accountant living in San Francisco, California who experienced a car wreck a few months ago. He has been experiencing shakiness, breathlessness, heat flashes, and nightmares. He has been trying to cope with the symptoms that he is experiencing through alcohol consumption and going jogging. Using the skills I have learned about abnormal psychology, I will be able to diagnose Roger and provide an explanation as to why he is suffering from the type of disorder that he is experiencing, as well as determine the most effective treatment options available. Based on the information provided to me, I am diagnosing Roger with post-traumatic stress disorder. Post-traumatic stress disorder is an anxiety disorder that is experienced by people who have been subjected to a traumatic, life-changing event. Although I am quite certain that this is the disorder that Roger is suffering from, I scheduled an appointment with him to get more details about the symptoms that he is experiencing. Me: Good morning, Roger, I wanted to call you in today to talk about the things that you are experiencing on a day-to-day basis so that I will learn more about yourself and the things that you are experiencing so that we can work together to come up with solutions that benefit you overcoming your experience. Roger: That sounds like a good plan, what would you like to know? Me: Well can you please begin with telling me what happened 2 months ago, so that I may hear it in your own words? Roger: Sure, about two months ago I was in a car accident where the other driver hit me head on. I wasn’t hurt, except for a few minor bruises, but my car was completely totaled. Since then, I try to avoid the area where I got into my accident. Me: Thank you for that information, Roger. Car accidents can be quite traumatizing and I’m sorry that you had to experience that misfortune. Roger: It’s okay, I’m just glad I got out of it alive. But the accident seems to stick with me no matter what I do, though. Me: Do you mind elaborating on that for me please, Roger? Roger: Well, ever since the accident I notice that whenever I am around the streets or in an automobile of any kind, I begin to feel shaky and out of breath. Then everything begins to get really hot and sometimes it feels like I am having a heart attack, so I begin to panic. Me: That’s very interesting Roger, have you been to your primary care doctor to see if there is a physical issue that is causing those symptoms? Roger: Yes, ma’am. My doctor told me that I am healthy as a horse and recommended me to you. So here I am. *laughs nervously* Me: I am glad that you are here to give me the opportunity to help you, Roger. Are there any other symptoms that you have been experiencing since your accident? Roger: Um, I’ve been obsessed with safer vehicles and I’ve spent a lot of time looking for an extremely safe car and have taken a defensive driving class. Some days I am so afraid to drive that I have to call my friends to come get me, and I can’t seem to find a car that meets my safety standards. Me: I can completely understand why you feel that way, Roger. Safety should always be the number one priority when out on the road. So you feel this anxiety only affects you when you are out on the roads? Roger: No, not at all. I’ve been having these horrible nightmares. Sometimes they are so bad that I can’t even make it to work, and my boss has started telling me that my performance is slipping, too. I’ve been drinking a lot since my accident because I can’t seem to get the thought of it out of my mind and it is the only thing that seems to help when I feel shaky. I’ve started to drink just to get the memory of the accident out of my mind. At home, I’m so worried about my family’s well-being that I try to keep everything clean and sterile. I don’t want myself or anyone in my family getting sick or going through what I went through. Roger: I know that this isn’t me and I don’t want to be please like this anymore, so can you please help me get past this? Because I don’t know what to do anymore and I’m having trouble just making it through each day. When I have my†¦panic attacks?†¦I usually head straight for the bar. Roger: After I have my nightmares, I usually can’t go back to sleep I go jogging. Being able to run helps me clear my mind of everything and just focus on the task at hand. Unfortunately, I’m not in very good shape so I can’t run for very long before I have to return home. Me: Thank you so much for explaining all of that to me in such detail, Roger, I could see that it was difficult for you. I want to let you know that it is excellent that you are going out jogging whenever you have a nightmare, and I want you to continue you doing that whenever possible in place of drinking. Me: Together you and I will find a way to get you through this, all I asking is for you to be willing to work with me. Can you do that, Roger? Roger: Yes, definitely. I’m ready to move on with my life. After the interview with Roger, I was able to gain more insight about his situation and am able to confirm that he is suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder. As mentioned before, Post-traumatic stress disorder is an anxiety disorder that is experienced by people who have been subjected to a traumatic, life-changing event such as being raped, in a car accident, combat, or witnessing someone else’s traumatic experience, such as a loved one or a friend, and even witnessing a violent death can cause acute and posttraumatic stress disorders. Individuals suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder becoming sensitized to the event that caused the disorder, causing them to experience feelings of anxiety when exposed to certain things related to the traumatic event. One of the key symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder is involuntary flashbacks of the traumatic event which can lead to the development of more severe symptoms. Those symptoms include: * Nightmares- the event relives itself in the subconscious, usually leading to insomnia * Depression – not enjoying the things you once enjoyed, disassociation * Anxiety, panic attacks – negative reactions to situations or sights/events that trigger a reconnection to the trauma. * Avoidance – For a traumatic event such as a car accident, avoiding the area where the accident occurred. * Substance Abuse: The abuse of drugs or alcohol as a coping mechanism to desensitize emotional response to flashback or other symptoms. The Cognitive model of abnormality realizes that everyone creates their own view of the world that comprises their reality (Comer, 2011). Unhealthy thoughts stemming from a traumatic event create the abnormal behavior individuals suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder experience. Therefore, post-traumatic stress disorder is a behavior that is determined by how individuals perceive the life-changing traumatic event that they experience. Looking into the history of post-traumatic stress disorder, PTSD was first discovered during the Civil War, with the development of battle PTSD, also known as ‘soldier’s heart,’ ‘shell shock,’ and ‘battle fatigue,’ becoming known officially as post-traumatic stress disorder after the Vietnam War. A study conducted by Brian P. Marx in 2010 discovered that soldiers developed PTSD regardless of how recently or how long they were deployed. The study also showed that the longer PTSD is left untreated, the worse it will get, showing that untreated cases will become more anxious, have a shorter attention span, and in general have much poorer mental health. The study also found that â€Å"the stress these soldiers were experiencing had a significant impact on their physical health such as immune functioning and cardiovascular disease (â€Å"The effect of PTSD and combat level on Vietnam veterans’ perceptions of child behavior and marital adjustment,† 2006, para. ). Today, about 50% of Americans experience a trauma during their life time and only 8% of those individuals suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder. So what factors cause certain people to develop post- traumatic stress disorder, while other individuals remained unaffected? One of the most important factors to consider when determining what type of individual is more likely to suffer from PTSD is the nature of trauma the individual faced and whether the individual had preexisting anxiety issues before their traumatic event. Studies have shown that individuals who were exposed to severe, prolonged trauma or trauma affecting one’s family were more likely to develop PTSD than individuals who did not. Using the Cognitive model of abnormality as a guide, there are several options for treating posttraumatic stress disorder. The most effective treatment is cognitive therapy, in which â€Å"therapists help clients recognize the negative thoughts, biased interpretations, and errors in logic that dominate their thinking† (Comer, 2011). Cognitive therapy is most effective for individuals suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder because it teaches the individual positive ways confront the negative thoughts and emotions surrounding their experience with their traumatic event by showing them how to understand the trauma that they went through and the feelings that they are experiencing afterwards. Helping the individual suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder understand why they are feeling the way they do about their traumatic experience is also important, as well as identify the thoughts and actions that make symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder worse. There are also further treatment options for individuals suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder and most anxiety disorders, including: * Relaxation: an individual is taught how to relax certain muscles by themselves instead of relaxing as a whole. Relaxation treatments have been the most successful in the treatment of anxiety symptoms such as high blood pressure and headaches as well as insomnia and panic attacks. * Biofeedback: an individual is connection to a machine that reads involuntary body movements enabling the individual to learn how to control those movements. This treatment has been most helpful in those recovering from post-traumatic stress disorders. * Meditation: is achieved my turning one’s concentration inward and blocking everything surrounding out allowing the individual to obtain a sort of peace from blocking out stressors. Meditation has been successful in helping symptoms of anxiety such as high blood pressure, pain, and in some cases, viral infecti ons (due to having a weaker immune system as a side effect of constant stress and anxiety). * Hypnosis: individuals a guided by a hypnotist, who lulls the individual into a sleep like trance, similar to meditation. In this trance the subconscious takes over and individuals can sometimes be directed to act in unusual ways, experience unusual sensations, remember seemingly forgotten events, or forget remembered events. This method is helpful with post-traumatic stress disorder victims who are suffering from amnesia and are unable to recall the traumatic event in order to come to terms with what happened and learn how to recover from it. In conclusion, post-traumatic stress disorder is a disorder that is caused by a traumatic, life changing event such as being raped, in a car accident, combat, or witnessing someone else’s traumatic experience, such as a loved one or a friend, and even witnes sing a violent death. The most effective treatment option for post-traumatic stress disorder as per the Cognitive model of abnormality is cognitive therapy in which â€Å"â€Å"therapists help clients recognize the negative thoughts, biased interpretations, and errors in logic that dominate their thinking† (Comer, 2011). I hope that with my thorough evaluation of the origin, causes, symptoms, and treatments of post-traumatic stress disorder, I am able to help Roger overcome the symptoms that he is experiencing from his post-traumatic stress disorder and assist him with his therapy so that he can return back to a normal life. References Comer, R. J. (2011). Fundamentals of abnormal psychology (6th ed.). New York, NY: Worth. Faces of Abnormal Psychology Interactive. (2007). Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder McGraw-Hill Higher Education Web Site, retrieved on February 2, 2013, from http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/psychology/faces/# The effect of PTSD and combat level on Vietnam veterans’ perceptions of child behavior and marital adjustment. (2006, Febraury). Journal of Clinical Psychology, 51(1), 4-12.

Individual Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Individual - Case Study Example In terms of its operations strategy, Whole Foods is using a market-led strategy which manifested by its varying store size, layout and design that is largely dependent on the particular site and building configuration and the store’s target clientele. Recent developments and conditions in the natural and organic foods segment of the food retailing industry such as the USDA labeling standards for organic products and the post 2000 increased sales of natural and organic foods at conventional U.S. supermarkets than in the nation’s natural foods stores have increased industry competition. Whole Foods development of new stores and acquisition of others ensures the company continues to increase its market share which gives it muscle to better face the rising competition. Also, the company’s varying store design, size and product variety increases its market positioning among its target clientele. Whole Foods strategy is therefore well matched to meet these recent developments and conditions. John Mackey’s strategic vision is for Whole Foods to become a national brand and be regarded as the best food retailer in every community it served. This is a good strategic vision for two main reasons. Firstly, the trend towards organics is still in its infancy and as such to increase revenues and profitability the organization has to pursue market development. For market development across the United States to be effective Whole Foods would require national branding. Secondly, Whole Foods has to compete with large established retailers that have large distribution networks such as Wal-Mart and Costco that are increasingly attracted to the natural and organic food industry. With a growing market it is more prudent for Whole Foods to rapidly gain market share in order to compete against these â€Å"more-resourced† competitors. Core values

E-commerce of on Supply Chain and Logistics Essay

E-commerce of on Supply Chain and Logistics - Essay Example According to Berger, a study conducted by Momentum Research Group found that US organizations involved in internet business solutions realized cumulative cost savings of US $ 155 billion in a three year period starting in 1998. Johnson and Whang stated that the key aspect of supply chain management has been management of information flow, with the transfer of information between companies their suppliers and customers through internet the importance of information management has created an effective supply chain. E-business is defined as a "marriage between the internet and supply chain integration." This marriage has led to transformation of many processes within a supply chain from procurement to product design and customer management. Various forms of e-business applications can be categorized into e-commerce, e-procurement and e-collaboration (2002). According to Berger "e-commerce can be defined as the conduct of business communication and transactions over networks and through computers or as the buying and selling of goods and services, and the transfer of funds, through digital communications. It can include all inter-company and intra-company functions (such as marketing, finance, manufacturing, selling and negotiation) that enable commerce." E-commerce communicates through e-mail, EDI, file transfer, facsimile, videoconferencing, workflow or interaction with remote computer. E- commerce has also associated with portals, e-marketplaces, e-auctions or virtual inventory. E-commerce impacts upon the three major factors of supply chain namely Physical, Financial and Informational flows. Impact of E-Commerce According to Berger e-commerce essentially gives the companies an access to markets and customers without moving the products and inventory physically, thus the physical movements can be avoided and product information made available through internet. With e-commerce solutions and information access being made available '24x7x365', product tracking and tracing information are made simple thus eliminating traditional paper based approach. Hence information flow also gets affected by e-commerce. Similarly financial flows too get affected by faster payments and settlement at every stage of the supply chain by e-commerce solutions. On further analysis it is observed that e-commerce impacts on supply chain for five principle reasons, which are as follows: 1. Major companies cannot afford to sit silent for underperformance, thus "the performance gap can no longer be hidden." 2. The Y2K problem compelled most of the companies to implement newer technologies and software. The e-commerce revolution has lead to the adoption of ERP systems, which manage operations not only internally but also with customers and suppliers. But some companies are in the initial stages of implementation of above steps and thus are unable to enjoy the benefits of these investments. 3. Last few years has seen an unprecedented investment by technology companies leading to "an acceleration of development of new software technology to support supply chain management." 4. Change of supply chain is a tough task and thus most of the companies have been avoiding some areas of supply chain. "The supply chain is one of the last major areas of business benefit." 5. The development of internet technologies have made world smaller and supply

The Financial Crises and The Collapse of the Lehman Brothers - ABD Essay

The Financial Crises and The Collapse of the Lehman Brothers - ABD - Essay Example The role of governments and that of economic theories had an equal amount of role to play in the control and monitoring function and the predictive ability and risk measurement respectively. The study of such indicators helps to understand and appreciate the importance of non financial factors as a cause of the recent financial crisis that shook the entire world (Kotz, 2009). The aftermath of the great financial crisis helps us to reflect upon the shocks experienced by the policy landscape and government policies and greed of bankers and the plight of the taxpayers. This has brought to focus, the need for enhancement of the role of the government in regulating and controlling the systems of the market from the inadequacies and the excesses. Also linked with these issues is the problem with moral hazards. The role of moral hazard has been identified to be central to the causes of the recent crisis and the learning from the controversy that can be drawn (Engelen et al., 2008). A moral hazard can be clearly defined as the responsibility of one party towards the interest of the other but where the interests of the former attain priority. For example, a person sells a financial product to the other but chooses only those funds for sale which provide him with the highest bonuses but might not hold any interest of the buyer. The risks associated with it are mutually borne by the seller and the buyer. The subprime was a typical example for the moral hazard theory where gains and social losses were privatized (Godechot, 2008). Financial risk management failures were caused primarily due to the ignorance of the systematic interaction between the different risk elements of the process. There were modeling errors that were based on the assumption of normal markets and ignored abnormal market situations. Such practice made the financial risk management system more prone to crisis rather than being less exposed. Credit default swaps and collateralized debt

Research report- Investigating a specific professional role (reception Essay

Research report- Investigating a specific professional role (reception Teacher) which you intend to seek employment after graduating from university - Essay Example with the course curriculum and the developments that are required for formulating best practices in guiding the children and also creating various opportunities and organizing various creative function for the children . The role of the reception teachers are recording the observations and summarizing the achievement and the success of the children. The teachers mainly emphasizes on the optimum development of the child and preparing for the successful transition of the child. The teacher is expected to provide best opportunities to its children for inspiring the children and promoting the ethos of the school. The role and the responsibility that will be required by me to perform being a reception teacher in a school is to focus on the physical, intellectual, emotional, creative and also social needs of the children in the school and also ensuring that it matches with the abilities and development of the children (Lieberman, 2007). I will be responsible for maintaining, supporting and developing the aims, objectives and policies of the school. For imparting best and proper education to the children I must keep myself updated with the specialist subject and the innovation and introduction of new technology and also application of various educational research and development and for creating a friendly environment I must work in coordination and with full cooperation with my colleagues for developing and introducing a holistic education which will transform the tradition into innovation (Wingerd, 2001). I am responsible for adapting according to the changes that is flexibility for coping up according to the changes and since the environment of the school is hectic and it required or expected to deal or interact with various people and together with that I will be responsible for handling all the students in the class and therefore it is required to remain calm and patience for handling all possible type of situations and hurdles. I will be assigned with

Homwork Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Homwork - Research Paper Example To begin with, children with televisions in their bedroom perform poorly in school and have high propensity to have sleep problems. Also, children who have television in their bedrooms are likely to be overweight and have higher risk for smoking. According to Parker-Pope, one of the consequences of having a television in a child’s bedroom is that the child end up watching programs that are not suitable for them without the knowledge of their parents (Parker-Pope Para 3). The article presents several studies that have been carried out to demonstrate the effect of having televisions in children’s bedrooms. For instance, he presents a study that was conducted on eighty children aged between 4 to 7 years in Buffalo. The findings of the research indicated that having a television in the bedroom increased average viewing time by approximately nine hours, from 21 hours to 30 hours. According to the research, there is high probability of parents of such children with television in their bedrooms to misjudge their children’s viewing time. In the article, Professor Leonard H. Epstein argues that the parents are usually unaware of what their children watch when the televisions are put in their bedroom. The television set is usually in the child’s bedroom and it becomes difficult for parents to remove television set from the child’s bedroom. In their one two-year research, Dr. ... The researchers discovered that reducing television viewing time did not increase play rate, but the children snaked less. This research did not simply the data by bedroom television viewing. However, the journal Pediatrics, 2002, reported that children with televisions in their bedroom risk being overweight. Further, the journal Obesity reported that boys have higher risk of becoming overweight. In a French research on adolescent, boys with television in their bedrooms showed higher likelihood of having larger waist, body fat and body mass index than their counterparts with no television in their bedrooms. In another study that was conducted among 400 children in six schools in Northern California, approximately 70 percent had television in their bedrooms. These children performed significantly and constantly lower on math, reading and language-art examinations. However, children who said they have computers in their bedrooms scored higher in the tests. Despite the fact that the pro found impact of bedroom television remains oblivious, it could be a big distraction from doing homework or it obstructs sleep leading to poor performance at school. A study on kindergartens indicated that children with bedroom televisions had sleep problems. Another research of over 700 middle-school students aged between 12 and 14 revealed that children with bedroom televisions have higher likelihood of smoking. 42 percent of those who had bedroom televisions in the study smoked compared to 16 percent of those who had no bedroom television. In another article, Parents Urged Again to Limit TV for Youngest by Benedict Carey, the American Academy of Pediatrics warned parent to limit the time that their children spend on televisions, computers and self-described educational games. The

Describe and critically assess the main challenges faced by trade Essay

Describe and critically assess the main challenges faced by trade unions in Britain today - Essay Example The problems began in 1980s following the entrance of Thatcher into the helm of Britain politics in 1979 and have extended beyond 1990s due to unavoidable social, economic and political changes that altered the labour market in the United Kingdom. Social, economic and political changes in Britain have interfered with the bargaining power of trade unions to champion for better pay, improved working conditions and obstruct alteration of existing pro-employee laws and regulations that protected the employees from unfair treatments of their employers (Heery 2002). Trade Unions in Britain have increased their efforts to increase it members of to trade unions but it proves a hard nut to crack. This is because the collective bargaining and the union power have been paralyzed. With the current membership decline among the unions, several questions have been raised concerning the impact of unions in the workplace. The main challenges faced by trade unions in Britain today The first challenge facing the trade unions in Britain is declining membership. According to Achur (2009), report from the Department for Business Innovation and skills revealed that the number of trade union members who were employed fell by 2.3 percent to 7.1 million members in 2008. Furthermore, there was a further decline of one hundred and sixty five thousand members in 2009. Reducing number of trade union members is disturbing because sustainability of trade unions in future is threatened. Reduction of membership is attributed to changes in various human resources and management practices of many organisations in the United Kingdom. Changes in human resources and management policies introduced practices such as team working, team briefings, quality circles and different profit sharing schemes. The new practices increased the levels commitment of all employees to their organisation. These organisations’ practices have paralyzed trade unions activities because it has made some of the members to withdraw from them. Therefore, trade unions are losing their bargaining power against employers and their influence among the workers is diminishing significantly (Kochan and Lansbury 1997). The second challenge facing the trade unions in Britain is political interference. When Margaret Thatcher became Prime Minister in 1979, there were over thirteen million members of the trade union. At that time, trade unions influenced every from work related matters to politics. Thatcher was not happy about it and she chose to weaken them through reforms under the tinder-dry Norman Tebbit. The powerful and militant Trotskyite union leaders were stripped off power and the power was handed over to ordinary members of the union. The Lawson secondary picketing and strike ballots were also changed. As a result, the structure of the trade unions were significantly weakened (Opinion 2011). Since Thatcher’s time, labour laws in Britain have changed. Changes in labour laws have never been friendly to the trade unions. Trade unions have experienced weakening support from the government as politics change. The conservative government also in the United Kingdom enacted policies and legislations that weakened the trade unions. This is evident when conservative government gave management of the organisations authority over the employees through change of labour laws (Waddington 2003). Therefore, the level and capacity

Facilitating the Project Lifecycle the Skills & Tools to Accelerate Progress for Project Managers, Facilitators, and Six Sigma Project Teams Essay Example for Free

Facilitating the Project Lifecycle the Skills Tools to Accelerate Progress for Project Managers, Facilitators, and Six Sigma Project Teams Essay One of the most important aspects to put into consideration when taking up a project is project risk management. A project risk is an event / condition, which is uncertain that, upon it occurrence brings either a positive or a negative impact on the project. A positive manager should consider this as one of the ten knowledge areas where competence is highly regarded. Risk management is critical, especially to organizations working I multi-project environments and the maturity for risk is high. A wide range of risks is apparent when working in projects involving construction among other engineering work. These risks are mostly attributed to government policy, diversity in stakeholders’ aspirations and the challenges of adding multiple projects. For a good risk management process, there must be a clear statement and understanding of roles and responsibilities, proper skills on technical analysis and the prevailing organizational factors should support the project. Project risk management involves identifying, assessing and prioritizing of risks: and thereafter putting resources to use in order to reduce, monitor and control those risks that could affect the project negatively and increase realizing of opportunities. This report seeks to outline the knowledge acquired on management of risk in projects. Discussion               All organizations exist for their own different purposes, and that of public engineering organizations in the construction business, the purpose is to deliver a service, which brings a beneficial result in the public/ stakeholders interest. Decisions to pump resources into investments on capital infrastructure are prompted by needs that are meant to enhance the achievement of the major purpose. According to Flanagan and Norman (1993), the benefits of efficient risk management are evident especially in projects involving capital infrastructure because they are dynamic in nature and bring positive cost implications from the construction related decisions. Risk management should be taken as an intrinsic part of capital infrastructure investment decisions mainly because, as project ventures get more elaborate, the role of risk management is exemplified. In regard to this realization, some countries have enacted government policies on constructors emphasizing on th e need to incorporate risk management in capital infrastructure schemes. Risk is therefore, in many occasions, viewed as a condition or event whose occurrence will have adverse effects on the project and may hinder the attainment of set objectives. Hence, risk management relates decisions to such probable harmful effects.                  This philosophical approach to risk management enables the process to be broken down into four fundamental sub-processes. These involve identification, analysis, response and monitoring. The former step of identification is the most critical step because it has the biggest effect on decisions emanating from the process of risk management. Reviewing risk management, in his article, Williams (1995), notes that there is little structured work in publication about typical risks. According to Chapman (1998), as much as risk identification is critical on the risk assessment and response phases, very little empirical evidence is available at this early phase. The heavier task in risk management remains in the analysis and response to the risk, yet the reasoning stands that unless the risks are identified, they cannot be analyzed and responded to.                  For most engineers, the need to have a set out program is critical for it provides an umbrella under which all current projects fall so that an outcome can be delivered massively in general, and greater than the total sum of all others. A program is usually temporary, and flexible; created to direct and oversee the implementation of a set of related projects and activities for the deliverance of beneficial outcomes that relate to the organization’s strategic objectives. Several projects are undertaken under this umbrella. This explicitly differentiates between program management outcomes and project management outputs. However, there is a link between projects and strategy through the program. Risk management is becoming an increasingly important process due to external pressures in existence. However, good risk management is seen as a critical attribute of organizational success in the field of engineering. The assumption that programs are merely extensions of projects should cease to exist because many will tend to reflect program risk management to project risk management (Allan, 2008). Program management is a broad extension of the varied, yet related, projects.                  On projects, it is important to define one or more objective functions like capital expenditure and completion time to represent it to measure the probability of achieving the set targets. Risk management then goes on to model the project’s objectives against the projects variables like costs and the quantity of inputs. These variables are usually uncertain as time goes on, hence the uncertainty of a hundred percent achievement of the objectives set. The most ideal situation would be identifying and characterizing the variables in advance providing that they will remain unchanged by time. This would make it easy to estimate the possible risks and the consequent variance of the project’s objective(s). However, not all project variables can be identified as new variables might surface as the project goes on while the probability of occurrence of the initial variables may vary. The impacts of the initial variables, both positive and negative, m ay change too hence making risk management even more hard (Drummond, 1999).                     Certainty and uncertainty of realizing a project’s objectives are measurable, only ideally. The possibility of a project not breaking even could be considered as a representative of the whole project, and then used in turn to evaluate against variable and try and reduce the risks involved as well as become a basis for decision-making. Some projects may proceed normally in a stable environment, hence making the uncertainty high at the time it is conceptualized. Pro-active planning and making prudent decisions will see the uncertainty reduce. However, uncertainty in complex projects within a changing environment will not necessarily reduce/ diminish as time goes by Chapman (1998). It is necessary to keep on checking on the project’s variables and re-evaluating of the objective function’s status to facilitate adjustments in the project’s strategies. Uncertainty surrounds many parts of a project; hence early resolution of vari ables may not be possible always. Variables change over time leading to exposure to new threats and risks along the way. This fact should not be refuted and a lot of work is required in the planning evaluating phases, where most of the critical work is done. In spite of all the uncertainty and complexity surrounding risk management and project management, it is important to seek methods of improving the project’s base value (Drummond, 1999).                  Conceptualization, planning, and implementation of a project is a complex process that requires management based on set strategic objectives, which vary from time to time. The objectives should be integrative and holistic in the sense that it caters for social, political, environmental, and community aspects. Traditionally, planning in project management should form the basis of planning, alongside other functions of project management including; human resource, time, scope, integration, quality and procurement. These should be the fundamental factors f consideration along each phase. A variety of guidebooks, protocols and codes of practice in the engineering field have been made available for use in risk management in project management. In the United Kingdom, the ‘Orange book’ is a framework that is set to offer guidance on basic risk management concepts and as a resource for developing risk management processes and implementing them I the public sector. It is also aimed at using a risk based decision-making on investment. There have been many more publications and publications aimed at dictating hoe risk management should look like. These guidelines have offered a basis upon which projects are appraised and their investment viability tested. This has enhanced the process and shifted its reception and perception from project risk management to a risk management strategic level (Melton, 2011).                  In engineering and construction professions, program management and project management came to existence due to the changing procurement environment. In the United Kingdom, procurement of infrastructural assets was done in a sequential manner, which involved a clear differentiation in the project life cycle phases. Currently there are three major procurement systems, that is; prime contracting, Design and Build procurement and Private Finance Initiative. These methods were because of the need to adopt integrative and collaborative project delivery methods. The procurement systems have features like framework agreements, the use of specifications that are output based, and more importantly, emphasis on the lifelong value of the structures (Shehu and Akintoye, 2009). The office of Government Commerce has facilitated the change in construction procurement in the public sector too. The agency’s main agenda is to ensure that policies are followed and en hancing promotion of the best performance practices. These systems ensure that the project undertaken are of high quality and are in regard to the set policies and guidelines. These sanctions in the public works and construction sector have acted as strategic risk management tools for they ensure quality assurance as well as proper quality management.                  Project management should incorporate the use of a strategy-based management approach. This will facilitate the integration of planning, risk management and decision-making hence ensuring real time real time realization of an optimum of the project’s strategic objective against its variables. The project’s promoters are not always the investors. Investors are not always actively involved in the management of the project, but invest resources into the project hoping to get dividends. The promoters’ objective, on the other hand, is to deliver a facility that will ensure a long term balanced and financially viable business entity. The project is therefore a compromise between the attainment of investors’ interests and that of the community. Project development should be based on a set of strategic objectives, which stamp the project as a business and entwining project decisions to strategic business decisions. Amid all risks, the project should be planned proactively with regards to its variables and with a focus on the life cycle objective functions (Westland, 2007).                  The life cycle objective functions are functions such as: financially related functions- such as the project’s net worth, satisfaction of customers- those affected by aspects such as safety, project utility, operability, and quality, lastly, due diligence must be adhered to- that is, statutory concerns and policies should be observed especially when the project is located in highly populated areas or is adjacent or near ecological systems deemed to be sensitive (Janet Tammy, 2005). This factor also goes hand in hand with the ethical code that is supposed to guide the execution of projects. Proactive planning of the project ensures that project uncertainty is minimized in real time. Effective risk management ensures that there is typical conceptualization of projects and their subsequent implementation using strategic objectives. It also ensures any further variables are assessed and managed accordingly to optimize the project’s strategic ou tcome, that which of a business entity. Since projects are subjected to changes in objectives and variables due to external factors, it is important to incorporate a continuous risk management process that involves continuous risk and uncertainty management process conducted in real time to bring value to the project manager. Strategies made from risk analysis should be seen as a basis upon which decisions are made going forward. Objectives of the life cycle should be used as the vessel for analysis. Reflective assessment                  Engaging in exhaustive personal research and involvement of the same with groups has incapacitated adequately with sufficient knowledge on managing projects as an engineer. I have come to evolve from a mediocre project manager, thinking that technicalities were all I needed, to a project under-taker equipped with the relevant skills. Undertaking projects with my group and alone was not like undertaking them with my professor. Comparing personal projects and those done in groups, with those guided by the professor, flaws are clear to point out. In my first group project, our then project leader, whose name I will not disclose for discretion purposes, was too impulsive at times and objectives were not achieved as expected because of poor decision-making, even on the most obvious issues. The project resulted in high costs in execution unlike what had been anticipated and took longer. However, it is from the mistakes that my group and I learnt the importance of risk management in project management as an important tool to facilitate proactive planning, rather than responding to results. Another lesson learnt from that experience was the need to incorporate continuous analysis as a way of implementing risk management to ensure real time solutions. However, it is through solving these and other hurdles that the learning process in the field has been enhanced and increased my knowledge. The short yet detailed experience coupled with the many articles and critiques I have encountered have inspired me to get to want to explore more on the field by undertaking and managing more projects to experience more than I have. By initiating and overseeing projects as well as assuming responsibility for achievement of objectives and integration will boost my intuition and judgment on decision-making for future projects and for professional expertise. I know trying to venture into projects of high magnitude is a risk, but the ability to tackle the risk itself is way beyond the risk management of the process and a success would ultimately mean victory on both ends. References Allan, N., Davis, J., 2006. Strategic risks — thinking about them differently. Proceedings of ICE 159 Drummond H 1999. Are we any closer to the end Escalation and the case of Taurus? International Journal of Project Management Flanagan, R., Norman, G. (1996). Risk management and construction. Oxford [u.a.], Blackwell Science.Means, J. A., Adams, T. (2005). Facilitating the Project Lifecycle the Skills Tools to Accelerate Progress for Project Managers, Facilitators, and Six Sigma Project Teams. Hoboken, John Wiley Sons. http://www.123library.org/book_details/?id=9130. Melton, T. (2008). Real project planning developing a project delivery strategy. Amsterdam, Butterworth-Heinemann. Shehu, Z., Akintove, A., 2010. Major challenges to the successful implementation and practice of programme management in the construction environment: a critical analysis. International journal of project management Westland, J. (2007). The project management life cycle: a complete step-by-step methodology for initiating, planning, executing closing a project successfully. Williams, T., 1995. A classified bibliography of recent research relating to project risk management. European Journal of Operational Research Source document

Importance of Costs in Pricing Strategy

Importance of Costs in Pricing Strategy Price of a product is a major element of the marketing mix. Pricing is one of the most important strategic issue because it is related to the product positioning. The price goes in hand with the other marketing mix elements such as product promotion, channel decisions and its features. For a developing the pricing of a new product, there can be a general sequence of steps that can be followed by the organisation which may vary from other organisations. The main area of focus will however be same for all the organisations. The different steps can be as follows. Develop marketing strategy perform marketing analysis, segmentation, targeting, and positioning. Make marketing mix decisions define the product, distribution, and promotional tactics. Estimate the demand curve understand how quantity demanded varies with price. Calculate cost include fixed and variable costs associated with the product. Understand environmental factors evaluate likely competitor actions, understand legal constraints, etc. Set pricing objectives for example, profit maximization, revenue maximization, or price stabilization. Determine pricing using information collected in the above steps, select a pricing method, develop the pricing structure, and define discounts. The various pricing strategies for products include, competition based pricing, cost-plus pricing, creaming or skimming, limit pricing, loss leader, market oriented pricing, penetration pricing, price discrimination, premium pricing, predatory pricing, contribution margin based pricing, psychological pricing, dynamic pricing, price leadership, target pricing, absorption pricing, high-low pricing, premium decoy pricing, marginal cost pricing, value based pricing. For each and every pricing strategies has its own reasons and market reach. At the end of the assignment, we can observe the various methodologies and techniques an organisation adopts in managing the finances using the pricing centric point of view. The factors that influence how a consumer perceives a given price and how price-sensitive a consumer is likely to be with respect to different purchase decisions[1] Reference Price Effect Buyers price sensitivity for a given product increases the higher the products price relative to perceived alternatives. Perceived alternatives can vary by buyer segment, by occasion, and other factors. Difficult Comparison Effect Buyers are less sensitive to the price of a known / more reputable product when they have difficulty comparing it to potential alternatives. Switching Costs Effect The higher the product-specific investment a buyer must make to switch suppliers, the less price sensitive that buyer is when choosing between alternatives. Price-Quality Effect Buyers are less sensitive to price the more that higher prices signal higher quality. Products for which this effect is particularly relevant include: image products, exclusive products, and products with minimal cues for quality. Expenditure Effect Buyers are more price sensitive when the expense accounts for a large percentage of buyers available income or budget. End-Benefit Effect The effect refers to the relationship a given purchase has to a larger overall benefit, and is divided into two parts: Derived demand: The more sensitive buyers are to the price of the end benefit, the more sensitive they will be to the prices of those products that contribute to that benefit. Price proportion cost: The price proportion cost refers to the percent of the total cost of the end benefit accounted for by a given component that helps to produce the end benefit (e.g., think CPU and PCs). The smaller the given components share of the total cost of the end benefit, the less sensitive buyers will be to the components price. Shared-cost Effect The smaller the portion of the purchase price buyers must pay for themselves, the less price sensitive they will be. Fairness Effect Buyers are more sensitive to the price of a product when the price is outside the range they perceive as fair or reasonable given the purchase context. The Framing Effect Buyers are more price sensitive when they perceive the price as a loss rather than a forgone gain, and they have greater price sensitivity when the price is paid separately rather than as part of a bundle. The Activity-based costing (ABC) The Activity-based costing (ABC) is a type costing model that identifies activities in an organization which assigns the cost of each activity resource to all products and services according to the actual consumption by each. The main concept of this model is to assign more of the indirect costs into direct costs. Indirect costs are costs that are not directly accountable to a cost object, such as a particular function or product. Indirect costs may be either fixed or variable. Indirect costs include taxes, administration, personnel and security costs, and are also known as overhead, which is nothing but the cost incurred for operating any kind of business. So in this costing model an organisation can precisely estimate the cost of individual products and services so they can identify and eliminate those that are unprofitable and lower the prices of those that are overpriced. In a business organization, the ABC methodology assigns an organizations resource costs through activities to the products and services provided to its customers. It is generally used as a tool for understanding product and customer cost and profitability. As such, ABC has predominantly been used to support strategic decisions such as pricing, outsourcing, identification and measurement of process improvement initiatives. The different uses of the ABC model is as follows It helps to identify inefficient products, departments and activities It helps to allocate more resources on profitable products, departments and activities It helps to control the costs at an individual level and on a departmental level It helps to find unnecessary costs It helps fixing the price of a product or service scientifically Yes, the ABC model does has its limitations. Even in activity-based costing, some overhead costs are difficult to assign to products and customers, such as the chief executives salary. These costs are termed business sustaining and are not assigned to products and customers because there is no meaningful method. This lump of unallocated overhead costs must nevertheless be met by contributions from each of the products, but it is not as large as the overhead costs before ABC is employed. Although some may argue that costs untraceable to activities should be arbitrarily allocated to products, it is important to realize that the only purpose of ABC is to provide information to management. Therefore, there is no reason to assign any cost in an arbitrary manner. Be able to apply forecasting techniques to obtain information for decision making Apply forecasting techniques to make cost and revenue decisions in an organisation Assess the sources of funds available to an organisation for a specific project Be able to participate in the budgetary process of an organisation Select appropriate budgetary targets for an organisation Participate in the creation of a master budget for an organisation Compare actual expenditure and income to the master budget of an organisation Evaluate budgetary monitoring processes in an organisation Be able to recommend cost reduction and management processes for an organisation Recommend processes that could manage cost reduction in an organisation Evaluate the potential for the use of activity-based costing Be able to use financial appraisal techniques to make strategic investment decisions for an organisation Apply financial appraisal methods to analyse competing investment projects in the public and private sector Make an justified strategic investment decision for an organisation using relevant financial information Report on the appropriateness of a strategic investment decision using information from a post-audit appraisal Be able to interpret financial statements for planning and decision making Analyse financial statements to assess the financial viability of an organisation Apply financial ratios to improve the quality of financial information in an organisations financial statements Make recommendations on the strategic portfolio of an organisation based on its financial information

Models of Celebrity Endorsement Strategy

Models of Celebrity Endorsement Strategy The selection of celebrity endorsers is not an easy task; many scholars have tried to create models in order to help for the right selecting of celebrity endorsers. Hovland et al (1953) conceptually contributed one of the earliest models, which is Source Credibility Model. Afterwords, the Source Attractiveness Model (McGuire, 1985), the Product Match-Up Hypothesis (Forkan, 1980; Kamins, 1989, 1990), and the Meaning Transfer Model (McCracken, 1989) was presented through empirically researchers in turn. The Source Credibility Model and Source Attractiveness Model are categorized under the generic name of Source Models since these two models basically show and reflect research of the Social Influence Theory/Source Effect Theory, which argues that various characteristics of a perceived communication source may have a beneficial effect on message receptivity (Kelman, 1961; Meenaghan, 1995). The source credibility model is based on research in social psychology (Hovland and Weiss, 1951-1952; Hovland, Jani, and Kelley, 1953). The Hovland version of model present that a message depends for its effectiveness on the expertness and trustworthiness of the source (Hovland et al., 1953, p.20; Dholakia and Sternthal, 1977; Sternthal, Dholakia, and Leavitt, 1978), which means that information from a credible source (e.g.celebrity) can influence beliefs, opinions, attitudes, and/or behavior via a process called internalization, which occurs when receivers accept a source influence in terms of their personal attitude and value structures (Erdogan, 1999). Expertness is defined as the extent to which a communicator is perceived to be a source of valid assertions and refers to the knowledge, experience or skills possessed by an endorser. Hovland et al (1953) and Ohanian (1991) believed that it does not really matter whether an endorser is an expert, but all that matters is how the target audience perceives the endorser. However, Aaker and Myers (1987) advocated a source/celebrity that is more expert to be more persuasive and to generate more intentions to buy the brand (Ohanian, 1991). Hence, expert sources influence perceptions of the products quality (Erdogan, 1999). Meanwhile; Speck et al (1988) found that expert celebrities produced higher recall of product information than non-expert celebrities, even though the difference was not statistically significant. Moreover, celebrities professional accomplishments and expertise may serve as a logical connection with the products, and consequently make the endorsement more believable to co nsumers (Till and Brusler, 2000). Trustworthiness refers to the honesty, integrity and believability of an endorser depending on target audience perceptions (Erdogan, 1999). Advertisers capitalize on the value of trustworthiness by selecting endorsers, who are widely regarded as honest, believable, and dependable (Shimp, 1997). Smith (1973) argues that consumers view untrustworthy celebrity endorsers as questionable message sources regardless of their qualities. Friedman, et al (1978) addressed that trustworthiness is the major determinant of source credibility and then tried to discover that likability was the most important attribute of trust. Thus, they recommended advertisers to select personalities who are well liked when a trustworthy celebrity is desired to endorse brands. However, Ohanian (1991) found that trustworthiness of a celebrity was not significant related to customers intentions to buy an endorsed ethnic status could affect endorser trustworthiness and brand attitudes, because people trust endorsers who are similar to them. Their findings implied that when targeting particular ethnic groups such as Africans and Asians, ethnic background should be carefully evaluated. Measuring source credibility in selecting celebrity It is quite reasonable to make sense that a sources credibility is totally subjective, but research shows that in spite of individual preferences, a high degree of agreement exists among individuals (Berscheid et al, 1971). Patzer (1983) developed the Truth-of-Consensus method to assess a sources credibility and attractiveness. The method is based on the foundation that individuals judgments of attractiveness and credibility are naturally subjective, but these judgments are shaped through Gestalt principles of person perception rather than single characteristics. Notably, on the basis of extensive literature review and statistical tests, Ohanian (1990) constructed a tri- component celebrity endorser credibility scale, (see figure) which assumes that credibility and effectiveness of celebrity endorsers is associated with given characteristic dimensions, even though McCracken (1989) argued that the celebrity world consists of much more just attractive and credible individuals. Table 2: Source Credibility Scale Attractiveness Trustworthiness Expertise Attractive-Unattractive Trustworthy-Untrustworthy Expert-Not Expert Classy-Not Classy Dependable-Undependable Experience-Inexperienced Beautiful-Ugly Honest-Dishonest Knowledgeable-Unknowledgeable Elegant-Plain Reliable-Unreliable Qualified-Unqualified Sexy-Not Sexy Sincere-Insincere Skilled-Unskilled Source: Ohanian, R (1990) Construction and validation of a scale to measure celebrity endorsers perceived expertise, trustworthiness and attractiveness, Journal of Advertising, p39-52 The Source Attractiveness Model Advertisers have chosen celebrity on the basis of their attractiveness to gain from dual effects of celebrity status and physical appeal (Singer, 1983). Meanwhile, research showed that physically attractive endorsers are more successful at changing beliefs (Baker and Chrurchill, 1977; Chaiken, 1979; Debevec and Kernan, 1984) and generating purchase intentions (Friedman et al, 1976; Petroshius and Schuman, 1989; Petty and Cacioppo, 1980) than those unattractive individuals. Hence, McGuire (1985) conducted an empirical research to contend that the effectiveness of a message depends on similarity, familiarity and liking for an endorser. The McGuire (1985) model holds that sources that are known to, liked by, and/or similar to the consumer are attractive and, persuasive. The source attractiveness model also rests on social psychological research (McCracken, 1989). Meanwhile, Cohen and Golden (1972) suggested that physical attractiveness of an endorser determines the effectiveness of persuasive communication through a process called identification, which is assumed to occur when information from an attractive source is accepted as a result of desire to identify with such endorsers. Petty and Cacioppo (1980) conducted attractiveness of endorsers in terms of a shampoo advertisement to comprehend effectiveness of advertising message types. In 1983, Petty et al replicated the earlier study in 1980. Their findings emphasize the interaction between involvement level and endorser type. Under low-involvement conditions, the endorser type had a significant impact on attitudes towards the product even though no impact was found on behavioral intentions. With respect to recall and recognition measures, findings indicated that exposure to celebrity endorsers increased recall of the product category only under low-involvement conditions. Besides, the endorser type manipulation revealed that celebrities had marginally significant impact on brand name recall over typical citizens. Patzer (1985: p30) stated that physical attractiveness is an information cue; involves effects that are subtle, pervasive, and inescapable; produces a definite pattern of verifiable differences; and transcends culture in its effects. Patzer argues that people usually inflate their own attractiveness so that attractive endorsers should be more effective than average looking endorsers. Kahle and Homer (1985) operated celebrity physical attractiveness and likability and measured attitude and purchase intentions on the same product: Edge razors. Findings indicated that participants exposed to an attractive celebrity liked the product more than participants exposed to an unattractive celebrity. Recall for the brand was greater both in attractive and likeable celebrity conditions. However, unlikeable celebrities unexpectedly performed better on recognition measures than likeable and attractive celebrities. Meanwhile, findings proved that an attractive celebrity created more purchase intentions than unattractive celebrity, but conversely an unlikeable celebrity produced more intentions to buy the product than a likeable celebrity. Quite significantly, studies by Cabalero (1989) and Till and Brusler (1998) demonstrate that positive feelings towards advertising and products do not necessarily translate into actual behavior or purchase intentions. A possible reason for the lack of celebrity endorsers effect on intentions to purchase is that celebrity endorsement seems to work on the cognitive and affective components of attitudes rather than the behavioral components (Baker and Churchill, 1977; Fireworker and Friedman, 1977). In terms of gender impact between endorsers and target audience, Debevec and Kernan (1984) found that attractive female model generated more enhanced attitudes than attractive male models across both genders and particularly among males. Conversely, Cabalero et al (1989) found that males showed greater intentions to buy from male endorsers and females hold greater intentions to purchase from female endorsers. Furthermore, Baker and Churchill (1977) found a rather unexpected interaction among female models, product type and intentions to purchase products among male subjects. For instance, when the endorsed product was coffee, an unattractive female model created more intentions to buy the product than her attractive counterpart among males, whereas when it was perfume or aftershave, male reacted more positively to an attractive female model. However, Petroshius and Schulman (1989) found that endorsement gender had no impact on attitudes towards advertisements and no major impact on i ntentions to buy products. Consequently, based on above disparate and controversial arguments, there is no consistent and coherent direction in terms of gender interactions between endorsers and target audiences to aid practitioners. In brief, it is apparent that attractive celebrity endorsers enhance attitudes and recall towards advertising and brands than unattractive celebrity endorsers, however there is no consistent agreement in relation to creating purchase intentions, even though a few studies found that celebrities can create purchase intentions. Multiple celebrity endorsement Millions of dollars are spent per annum on celebrity endorsement contracts on the basis that source effects play an important part in convincing communications. Although traditional advertising knowledge suggests the meaning of an elite product contract with the celebrity, uniqueness comes with a high price label. As a result, it is becoming familiar for companies to share stars (Elliott, 1991; Sloan and Freeman, 1988). For example, former Chicago Bulls star Michael Jordan has endorsed products for 14 companies (Lipman and Hinge, 1991), and golfer Lee Trevino has had endorsement contracts with Cadillac, Motorola Cellular Phone, Spalding Top-Flight, and La Victoria Salsa (Shatel, 1991). Multiple product endorsements set up new questions relating to our understanding of how consumers react to celebrity endorsements. If as McCracken (1989, p.311) suggests, the celebrity endorser takes on meanings that carry from ad to ad, does endorsing multiple products affect those assigned meanings such that the consumer perceives the celebrity to be less credible and less likable (Kaikati, 1987)? Do consumers have less positive approaches toward ads and brands if multiple product endorsements are involved? What consequence do multiple product endorsements have on consumers buying aims? Does the number of products endorsed restrain the effect of frequent publicity to the celebrity endorser (Tripp, 1994)? Practical proof concerning how consumers react to multiple product endorsement is restricted, leaving unanswered issues in an important research ground. It is known the act of multiple product endorsements guides to certain impressions about celebrity. Early studies (i.e. Mowen and Brown 1981; Mowen, Brown, and Schulman 1979) suggest that simply knowing that a celebrity endorses multiple products is satisfactory to decay consumers insights of endorser honesty, as well as a brand and ad evaluations. Given a limited knowledge of how the endorsement process works (McCracken, 1989), these are clearly issues with theoretical value. The current study independently manipulated the number of exposures to a celebrity in a way different from previous studies in order to investigate the effects of continual exposure to the multiple product endorsers on consumer responses. The apply of actual stimulus is important since exposure to multiple product endorsers (vs. knowledge only) may result in effects different from multiple product endorsement effects. For example, attribution theory (Kelley, 1973) suggests that assumptions may result in consumers evaluating multiple product endorsers less favorable than single product endorsers. According to Kelley, observers identify an actors action to be characteristic when it happens in the presence of a unit and does not occur to its absence. In the case of endorsements, single product endorsements (even if viewed multiple times) compose characteristic actions since spokesperson endorses one brand and not other brands or products. In contrast, multiple product endorsements compose non distinctive actions because the endorsements take a broad view across products with the celebrity constant. Limited of the number of exposures to the endorser, this non distinctiveness may result in consumers concluding that the nature of the spokesperson was the reason for the endorsement, not the nature of product. Although multiple product endorsements (i.e. non distinctive actions) influence perceptions of the spokespersons credibility (i.e, internal attributions), the spotlight of external attributions for single product endorsements (i.e.. distinctive actions) is not obvious. Witnesses of a spokesperson who endorses only a single product may or may not trait the endorsement to the product itself (e.g. product quality). The product repr esents only one cause for the endorsement. Other potential causes for the endorsement exist (e.g., popularity of the endorser; endorsers ties to the product, company, or advertising agency; money paid to the endorser) (Tripp, 1994). In this respect, multiple product endorsements may lead to attribute suggestions about nature of the spokesperson (e.g. traits such as greediness) and, in turn, pressure such manifestations of affect as credibility and likability (Weiner, 1985). Moreover, affect may lead to comparative preferences or be short of of preferences toward associated stimulus (Bara and Ray, 1985) such as the ad or brand. Attribution theory may be used to make clear consumers assumptions about the reasons for a product endorsers support (Folkes, 1988). Commonly, when exposed to a single endorsement, consumers attribute the support to an external cause (e.g. a financial reason). However, the frequency of an action and the actions with which it co varies form the basis of many attributions (Folkes, 1988). Since a multiple product endorser is seen repeatedly and in different contexts, examination of the relationship between the number of exposures to the celebrity, endorser likability, and credibility is a critical consideration. Berlynes (1970) two-factor paradigm suggests that increased exposure to a stimulus results in a more favorable response initially due to a learning factor. At some higher number of exposures, however, a negative response (possibly due to tedium) begins to predominate. Taken together, these two theoretical ideas suggests that the number of products endorsed and the number of expo sures to the endorser may interact such that the number of products endorsed moderates the effect of number of exposures. Thus, inclusion of actual exposure allows for the first tests of any multiple product endorsement effects on both dimensions of credibility and likability beyond that due to repeated exposure to the endorser (Tripp, 1994). The product Match-Up hypothesis Forkan (1980) and Kamins (1990) conducted empirical experiment to test the Product Match-up Hypothesis, which contends that messages conveyed by celebrity image and the product message should be congruent for effective advertising. The determinant pf the match between celebrity and brand depends on the degree of perceived fit between brand such as brand name and attributes and celebrity image (Misra, 1990). Advertising a product via a celebrity who has a relatively high product congruent image leads to greater advertiser and celebrity believability (Levy, 1959; Kamins and Gupta, 1994; Kotler, 1997). Importance of proper match-up between celebrities and products has been emphasized. From practitioners perspective, a senior vice president of a leading beverage company states that celebrities are an unnecessary risk unless they are very logically related to products (Watkins, 1989). Another practitioner quoted by Bertrand and Todd (1992) argued that if there is a combination of an appropriate tie-in between the companys product and the celebritys persona, reputation or the line of work that the celebrity is in, advertisers can get both the fame and the tie-in working for them. Meanwhile, many studies report that consumers also expect congruity between celebrity endorsers perceived images and their endorsed products (Callcoat and Phillips, 1996; Ohanian, 1991; OMahony and Meenaghan, 1997). Otherwise, Evans (1988) argued that if celebrities do not have a distinct and specific relationship to the product they endorse, the use of celebrities could produce the Vampire effect which happens when the audience remembers the celebrity, but not the product or service. Meanwhile, the absence of connection between celebrity endorsers and products endorsed may lead consumers to the belief that the celebrity has been bought to endorse the product/service (Erdogan, 1999). Significantly, the proper match-up between a celebrity and a product has been based on celebrity physical attractiveness, and the match-up hypothesis predicts that attractive celebrities are more effective when endorsing products used to enhance ones attractiveness (Kahle and Homer, 1985; Kamins, 1990). Research also identifies that characteristics of a celebrity interact positively with the nature of the product endorsed (Friedman and Friedman, 1979; Kamins, 1990; Lynch and Schuler, 1994). Choi and Nora (2005), who used a cognitive approach that focuses on consumers attributions of celebrity endorsement motives, emphasized that the level of celebrity and product congruence will influence celebrity endorsement effectiveness through the process of consumer attributions of the celebritys motive for associating him or herself with the particular product and the subsequent effect of these attributions on the consumer evaluations of the endorser, the advertising, and the brand involved in the endorsement. Surprisingly, Kamins and Gupta (1994) found that the match-up between a celebrity endorser and the endorsed brand also enhances the celebrity endorsers believability and favorable attitudes (Till et al, 2006). Friedman and Friedman (1978) found that celebrity endorsers are more appropriate where product purchases involve high social and psychological risk. Meanwhile, Kamins (1989) and Kamins, et al (1989) found that celebrity endorsers were able to generate desired effects on high financial and performance risk products/services such as management consultation and computers. Conversely, Callcoat and Phillips (1996) reported that consumers are generally influenced by endorsers if products are inexpensive, low-involving and few differences are perceived among available brands. As a result, these contradictory arguments lead to the conclusion that advertising is a powerful mechanism of meaning transfer that virtually any product can be made to take any meaning (McCrackens 1987; OMahony and Meenaghan, 1997). The almost studies in terms of evaluating celebrities endorser and endorsed products/brands are using consumer samples. Only one study by Miciak and Shanklin (1994) investigation considered advertising practitioners when choosing celebrity endorsers based on a small sample including 21 agencies and 22 company practitioner. Remarkably, more recently, Erdogan et al (2001) investigated a larger sample that is the 300 largest British advertising agencies (Campaigh, 1997) to consider important celebrity characteristics from the practitioners perspective when selecting an endorser by conducting exploratory interviews and a mail survey. Their findings provide implications for both theory and practice. At the theoretical level, the research firstly shows that managers do not see celebrities as undimensional individuals such as attractive and credible when selecting celebrity endorsers, because celebrities are different unknown endorsers as they represent a variety of meanings that are drawn from the roles they assume in television, film, politics, and so on (McCracken, 1989). Secondly, managers have implicitly incorporated the findings of product match-up hypothesis research in their decision-making. On the other hand, for practitioners, as none of the advertising agencies had any written documentation regarding celebrity endorsement strategy, Erdogan et al (2001) set the criteria through providing a possible check list of factors in Table 3 below, when practitioners select celebrity endorsers. However, DeSarbo and Harshman (1985) argue that neither the source credibility and attractiveness nor the match-up research is adequate in providing a heuristic for appropriate celebrity endorser selection, although the Match-Up Hypothesis extends beyond attractiveness and credibility towards a consideration and matching of the entire image of the celebrity with the endorsed brand and the target audience. The Meaning Transfer Model McCracken (1989) organized an empirical research evaluating effectiveness of the endorser depends upon the meaning the person brings to the endorsement process in part. McCracken (1989) and Brierley (1995) pointed out that the number and variety of the meanings contained in celebrities are very large, which includes status, class, gender, and age and personality and lifestyles types, more importantly, the cultural meanings existing in a celebrity go beyond the person and are passed on to the products. Fortini-Campbell (1992) argues that products just like people have personalities, and claims that people consume brands with personality characteristics like their own or ones they aspire to possess in celebrities. Similarly, according to Fowles (1996), advertisers rationale for hiring celebrities to endorse products is that people consume images of celebrities, and advertisers hope that people will also consume products associated with celebrities. Celebrity endorsement actually is a special instance of a more general process of meaning transfer (McCracken, 1989). This process is a conventional path for the movement of cultural meaning in consumer societies through formation of celebrity image, transfer of meaning from celebrity to product, and from product to consumers. McCracken (1988) defined that meaning begins as something resident in the culturally constituted world, in the physical and social world constituted by the categories and principles of the prevailing culture. Furthe rmore, McCracken (1989) found that several instruments facilitate this transfer. Firstly, the movement of meanings from the culturally constituted world to consumer goods is accomplished by advertising and the fashion system. Then, the movement of meanings from consumer goods to the individual consumer is accomplished through the efforts of the consumers. Hence, meaning circulates in the consumer society. Besides, McCracken (1986) argued that advertising is one of the instruments to move meanings from culture, to consumers, to goods; this movement is accomplished by the efforts of promotional agencies. Similarly, Domzal and Kerman (1992) claimed that advertising is an integral part of social systems, whose function is to communicate the culturally constructed meaning of products to consumers. As the figure 1 shows, the meaning that begins in the dramatic role of the celebrity resides in the celebrity themselves in stage 1. In stage 2, this meaning is transferred when the celebrity enters into an advertisement with a product, and some of the meanings of the celebrity are now the meanings of the product. In the final stage, the meaning moves from the product to the consumer. Notably, celebrity endorsement makes a very particular contribution to each of these three stages in meaning transfer process. In sum, as McCracken (1989) suggested, the meaning transfer model presented is intended to demonstrate that the secret of the celebrity endorsement is largely cultural in nature, and that the study of the celebrity endorsement is improved by a cultural perspective. Consequently, advertisers should assess the culture that encompasses a celebrity to determine whether these meanings are feasible for brands/products in order to achieve effectiveness of the endorser. Definition of celebrities Celebrities are people who enjoy public recognition by a big share of a certain group of people. Whereas characteristic like attractiveness, amazing lifestyle or special skills are just examples and specific common characteristics cannot be observed, it can be said that within a analogous social group celebrities generally vary from the social standard and enjoy a high degree of public awareness. This is factual for classic forms of celebrities, like actors (e.g. Meg Ryan, Pierce Brosnan), models (e.g. Naomi Campbell, Gisele Buendchen), sports athletes (e.g. Anna Kournikova, Michael Schumacher), entertainers (e.g. Oprah Winfrey, Conan OBrien) and pop stars (e.g. Madonna, David Bowie) but also for less obvious groups like businessmen (e.g. Donald Trump, Bill Gates) or politicians (e.g. Rudy Giuliani, Lee Kuan Yew). Celebrities appear in public in different ways. First, they appear in public when satisfying their profession, e.g. Pete Sampras, who plays tennis in front of an audience in Wimbledon. Furthermore, celebrities appear in public by attending special celebrity events, e.g. the Academy Awards, or world premieres of movies. In addition, they are present in news, fashion magazines, and tabloids, which offer second source information on events and the private life of celebrities through mass-media channels (e.g. Fox 5 news covering Winona Ryders trial on shoplifting, InStyle). Last but not least, celebrities work as spokespersons in advertising to endorse products and services (Kambitsis et al. 2002, Tom et al. 1992). Advantages and disadvantages of celebrity endorsement strategy Potential Advantages Potential Disadvantages Preventive Tactics Assisting product  marketing and  increased attention Overshadow the brand Pre-testing and careful planning Image polishing Public controversy Buying insurance and putting  provision clauses in contracts Brand introduction Image change and  overexposure Explaining what is their role and  putting clause to restrict  endorsements for other brands Brand repositioning Image change and loss of  public recognition Examining what life-cycle stage  the celebrity is in and how long  this stage is likely to continue Underpin global  campaigns Expensive Selecting celebrity who are  appropriate for global target  audience, not because they are  hot in all market audience Source: Erdogan, B.Z (1999) Celebrity endorsement: A literature review, Journal of Marketing Management, Vol 15, p295 Mathur et al (1997) state a variety of reasons that firms use celebrity endorsers including that firms may feel that the life experiences of endorsers fit the advertising message, that the endorser has high appeal with the firms target consumer group, or that the endorsers universal appeal makes the advertising universal. Celebrity endorsement can bring out several positive effects. They are that advertisements become believable (Kamins et al, 1989), message recall is enhanced (Friedman and Friedman, 1979), recognition and perception of brand names is improved and attitudes about products with low purchase involvement are affected (Petty et al, 1983; Till et al, 2006), positive attitudes about brands results (Kamins et al, 1989), and distinct personalities and appeals for products and brands are created (McCracken, 1989; Dickenson, 1996). Moreover, celebrity endorsements are believed to generate a greater likelihood of customers choosing the endorsed brand (Heath et al, 1994; Kahle a nd Homer, 1985; Ohanian, 1991). As a result the use of celebrity endorsement is an advertising strategy that should enhance the marginal value of advertisement expenditures and create brand equity by means of the secondary association of a celebrity with a brand (Keller, 1993). Meanwhile, research indicates that celebrity endorsements can result in more favorable advertisement ratings and product evaluations (Dean and Biswas, 2001). Some of the most difficult aspects of global marketing to gasp are host countries cultural roadblocks such as time, space, language, relationships, power, risk, masculinity and femininity (Mooij, 1994; Hosfsted, 1984). Under this situation, celebrity endorsements are a powerful device by which to enter foreign markets; and celebrities with world-wide popularity can help companies break through many such roadblocks (Erdogan, 1999). On the other hand, there are also many potential disadvantages and hazards in utilizing celebrities as endorsers as a part of marketing communication strategy. Firstly, benefits of using celebrities can reverse markedly if they for example, suddenly change image, fall popularity, get into a situation of moral turpitude, lose credibility by over-endorsing or overshadow endorsed products (Cooper, 1984; Kaikati, 1987). Secondly, negative information about a celebrity endorser not only influences consumers perception of the celebrity, but also the endorsed product (Klebba and Unger, 1982; Till and Shimp, 1995). Thirdly, another common concern is that consumers will focus their attention on the celebrity and fail to notice the brand being promoted (Rossiter and Percy, 1987). Fourthly, celebrities who are blamed for negative events such as accidents can have detrimental influence on the products they endorse (Louie and Obermiller, 2002). Besides, Mowen and Brown (1981) argue that if a celebritys image ties in with many brands/ products, impact and indentify with each product may reduce since the relationship between the celebrity and a particular brand is not distinctive. This can not only compromise the value of the celebrity in the eyes of stars fans (Graham, 1989), but also can make consumers to think the real nature of endorsement that has less to do with the brand/product attributes, and more to do with generous compensation for the celebrity, leading consumers to overt doubt about their motives, so as to cause the negative influences on consumer attitudes and purchase intentions among the multiple products endorsed by celebrities (Cooper, 1984; Tripp et al, 1994). The f